Interviewing 101

Dressing for Success

Some people enjoy journalism due to the relative lack of a uniform, i.e. while most publications don't want you wearing jeans, seldom will you need to wear "Sunday" clothes. The thing to remember: dress for the source.

If you're wearing a three-piece suit, you won't feel comfortable getting in the middle of a cow pasture to talk with farmers about crop production or pesticide problems. Conversely, if you're wearing muddy boots, the banker or lawyer likely won't have time to speak with you in their clean offices. By scheduling interviews, you should know a day in advance what you'll need to wear in order to "fit in" an event.

NOTE: You don't need to spend a lot of money on clothes that qualify as "business casual." You can typically buy these things at a thrift store and save money for more important things like gas, food and beer. With an iron or a wrinkle-releaser spray-bottle, it's easy to make old clothes look as nice as something just purchased at the mall.

While your clothes should reflect who you're interviewing (or the occasion of the event), you're never completely "dressed for success" until you have the following:

Reporter's Notebook - Always keep your notes. You'll never know when you need to prove somebody actually said what they told you.
A couple of pens in case the ink runs out; at least one pencil in case it rains
A digital recorder to A) catch verbatim quotes that will help you write your article, B) provide audio clips for the Web and C) back up your notebook.
A digital cell phone to A) make calls, B) access the Web and C) take pictures if you don't have a digital camera with you.
A digital camera to take pictures and/or video
Press Pass - It's often easier to gain access when people know you work for the press. If you join the Arkansas Press Association, you'll receive a window decal that sometimes allows you to park closer to an event. Occasionally it will make you park further if you've nettled the person in charge.
A "flash" or "USB" drive that allows you to store gigabytes of information in a portable container

Preparing for the Interview

Writers can stay in the safe confines of their imaginations; reporters cannot. You can be an introvert on your time, but while working, you must become extroverted, i.e. you've got to talk to people. Otherwise, you won't get the stories that matter. Yes, you risk being embarrassed, ignored, physically manhandled ... but if you don't want to do it, be a poet. Then you're nearly assured of staying broke.

When it's all said and done, reporters interview people to get information. People make the news, i.e. nobody just wants to read an article filled with numbers. The reporter should not be a "friend" of the source lest he or she unintentionally slant the story due to a conflict of interests. It helps to pre-plan the interview to make sure you know what you want to write. Research will help determine what's been previously covered and allow you to fill in the gaps.

Great interviews take work, i.e. you should know as much about your subject as possible before you ever interview someone. The best way to do this is go to your publication's morgue and read what's been written previously. This gives you an idea of how much attention the subject or source has already received. Plus, sources prefer not having to waste time answering the same old questions again and again (that being said, it's best to ask an expert to simplify things for you so it's easier to explain to the masses).

Research helps you become a general expert, provides questions to ask or not, and lets you know what you need to confirm. It never hurts to make sure your source confirms even routine facts at some point in the interview. Also, a source will feel more comfortable speaking with you if they know you've already taken the time to find their resumes, read previously published articles about them, and interview their friends and associates (and even enemies).

When you've completed your research, you're ready to think about who you're going to interview. It's always good to set up an interview, but remember to be ready if you call to do so: some sources will get on the phone and say now's the best time for the interview. If you're not ready with questions, you may miss a golden opportunity.

Most often the source will schedule a time to meet. Find a good place for it, e.g. the source's office, home, etc. Why there? Typically, they'll have things that can give you more information about who they are, e.g. if they claim to be a "family man," do they have pictures on their desk or walls? You MUST conduct a face-to-face interview and spend time with the subject to accurately write a personality profile. You can uncover the source's hobbies by looking around, e.g. if a mounted fish or duck hangs on the wall, it may indicate they're a sportsman. Noticing such things can provide ice-breakers and get the subject to loosen up as well as provide you with details that will make the article more interesting.

You should NEVER conduct an e-mail interview with someone you're questioning for the first time. Face-to-face interviews allow you to note reactions. Once you know the source, then it's possible to interview via e-mail to clarify mundane details but it's not recommended, e.g. Chancellor Lassiter often prefers e-mail interviews due to his schedule demands, but you don't want to conduct such an interview when discussing a professor stalking a student.

If the source insists on meeting for coffee, lunch or dinner, make sure you pay your own way. Accepting an expensive meal may leave the impression that you will write a favorable story. To make sure you don't get into a battle over who will pay, keep your order to a minimum, e.g. a soda, water or cup of coffee. You're there for the interview even if the source came to eat. You must make sure your source understands the ground rules of the interview, i.e.

We don't pay for news, ever.
Nobody — not even the President of the United States — reads the final article before it goes to press, though they're welcome to read the transcripted notes to make sure there's not a misquote. A good journalist WILL check back to ensure the accuracy of quotes, specific facts or jargon definitions.
Everything said will be on the record unless specifically requested off the record PRIOR to the statement. If a source asks to go off the record, first ask that they remain on the record as they may not be in the article if they go off the record. If this goes nowhere, ask if that means you can publish it if you can verify it with other sources, or if you can use the information for background material.

People who've been interviewed more than once probably already understand these ground rules, but you may need to explain it to someone being interviewed for the first time. If problems arise, call your editor (or adviser) to clear up any confusion.

You actually frame the article by deciding who you will interview and who you won't interview. By deciding what questions to ask, you also decide what questions you won't ask. These decisions will sometimes cause the public to believe you're biased (even if it's unintentional). Check yourself to make sure you're not looking for a slant before interviewing someone or you might insist on it even if it's not there. Being aware of your biases should help you overcome them as it's most important to be fair, even when you cannot be objective.

In addition to using some self-skepticism, be skeptical about your sources. A little doubt will help you make sure you don't get duped. The following checklist comes from Deborah Potter of NewsLab.org, which advises TV newsrooms:

How does this source know what he or she knows? (Is this person in a position to know these things — either personally or professionally?
How can I confirm this information through other sources or documents?
How representative is my source's point of view?
Has this source been reliable or credible in the past?
Am I only using this source because it's the easy way to go? Because I know I'll get a good sound bite?
What's the source's motivation for providing information? (Is the person trying to look good or make the boss look bad? Why is the source talking to me in the first place?)
Am I being manipulated or spun by this source

Questions for the Interview

Experienced reporters arrive at the interview with a list of prepared questions that came from background research. Some questions will elicit responses that may take your interview in a unforeseen direction; that's OK, just make sure you also answer the questions you came with. Most reporters ask a lot of questions to get more information than they plan to use for an article, e.g. asking a source for a brief life history will let them know you're interested in who they are. While you may not use this information in your article, it can give you insight on how the source knows things.

The first question you should ask is the correct spelling of the source's name and title, which shows you know the details matter. Most questions should be open-ended, i.e. they make the source provide lengthy answers that pave the way for more specific questions. Only use close-ended questions (i.e. yes or no answers) for things you need to verify, e.g. Did you graduate from Harvard? Did you commit the crime?

To elicit more information, you can follow up a close-ended question with a simple "Why?" or "Why not?" Follow-up questions can also help clarify jargon, i.e. industry-related terminology that the average lay-person wouldn't understand. The follow-up shows you're genuinely curious about the subject or source.

Good questions confirm background information, clarify data and, most importantly, entice the source to provide good quotes. You're looking for opinions, insights, clear translations and colorful sayings. Quotes make the story, but only use the best ones in your article. REMEMBER: Quotes are like chili spice, i.e. too many will bore the reader, so choose the best. Place these near the beginning of your article to introduce the source early and also make sure the quote isn't cut. Typically you will paraphrase the majority of what the source says because you're writing an article, not a transcript.

Look for anecdotes when the source is talking, i.e. illustrative points that will help you tell the story. Asking "When?" takes the source back in time and often provides good anecdotes. If the source explains something in a unique way, don't be afraid to slow them down and have them become a story-teller, giving the details of what exactly happened and how they felt about it. If they're talking too fast for you to keep up, don't be afraid to ask them to repeat something to "make sure I got this right" (especially if you forgot to bring a recorder or if the source doesn't want to use a recorder).

While you should always attempt to find sources agreeable to an interview, occasionally you may encounter a reluctant source. If this happens, appeal to the source's pride or purpose by noting they're the authority on the subject matter. If necessary, you can also appeal to their sense of justice, their sense of professional prestige or even their obligation to the community. Tell them the story will be written anyway, and it always looks better for the source to comment than for readers to wonder why they wouldn't comment as you'll let the public know you attempted to get information from the source. Also, be prepared when dealing with the hostile source as they will not want to speak with you. Don't call them on the phone as they can just hang up.

If you're conducting an emotionally-charged interview, be aware that you're just getting the facts. Your opinions should not color the questions or what you write, i.e. guard against inaccuracies that may result from your beliefs. Sometimes you need to think like a therapist when your interviewing, i.e. ask about strange behaviors that may seem perfectly normal to the source. Note how the source handles surprises and stress.

Sometimes you may have to interview people after a traumatic event. Realize the source may be in shock from what they've seen so be careful what you choose to use from the interview as you don't want to add insult to injury. In those cases where you must deliver bad news to the source (e.g. a death to a friend or family member), immediately identify who you are, why you're contacting them and offer your condolences. You can also tell the source that talking about an event can be part of the healing process.

Most importantly, be an attentive listener in any interview. You're there to ask questions, not dominate the discussion. Just being quiet will often make the source want to fill the "dead spaces." If someone gets emotional, being quiet will allow them to determine whether to stop or not. You can ask a follow-up questioning why they became emotional. While you may be tempted to reveal similar experiences to get a source to open up, you can put yourself at risk as the source may begin to believe you are their friend and expect a flattering or non-compromising article as a result.

When you've exhausted your list of questions, don't just leave. At this point, the source begins to relax and often becomes more talkative. Use this opportunity to ask the source if there's anything else they'd like to add, if there's someone else you should speak with or if there's a question that you should have asked that you didn't. This gives them the opportunity to clarify things they're concerned about. Just like Detective Columbo in the '70s TV show of the same name, keep asking questions until you leave and you might get a lead on a bigger story. Finally, make sure you can call the source back with additional questions if needed while writing the article.

Take Good Notes

The hardest part of the interview is getting the notes correct. It's why you shouldn't be afraid to ask the source to repeat information for clarification. They'll be glad that you're trying to get it right.

According to Yopp & Haller's "Introduction to News Reporting" (2005), four rules exist for note-taking:

"It's better to have more notes than you need." Typically you'll have notes on 50-75 percent more than you will use.
"Reporters never stop taking notes during an interview." You should even take notes during the informal chatting at the start and end of the interview in case the source provides a good quote.

Even if you're recording the interview, continue taking notes. Put the recorder between you and the source, but not in a conspicuous place where they're continually looking at it. Sometimes background noise will obscure the interview. Sometimes the battery runs out. Sometimes you lose the tape recorder. It's never fun to re-interview a source due to one of these problems as the source will question your professionalism.
"Reporters take notes on more than words." Include descriptions of the source's clothing, mannerisms, office or home decor ... anything that will bring the source to life for the reader.
"Good reporters write or type their interview notes as soon as possible." You can't expect to remember things days, weeks or months after they've occurred. In addition to events, it will be hard to remember what you've scrawled across the page. If you'll take the time to immediately transcribe, you can not only get the nuts and bolts, but also the feel for the interview. At the very least, re-read your notes, clear up illegible wording and flesh out sentences.

Just as you should never preconceive a story, also remember you should never dress up a quote. Either someone said it or they didn't. You can't improve on reality, so don't try ... or pick another profession.

While asking good questions and taking good notes help with writing the article, the writer will only be as good as his or her perception. Use your five senses to provide details of interest. You will be a witness for humanity, like Walt Whitman, who took notes all the way through old age:

Wherever I go, indeed, winter and summer, city or country, alone at home or traveling, I must take notes - "Specimen Days"

The Kentucky Post's feature writer William Ruehlmann suggested the following exercise to improve your perception in his book, "Stalking the Feature Story." Though meant to help

"Walk the park; set down your perceptions; go home and work them up, trying to make your journey in prose as real as the ambulatory one. Leave nothing out." (p. 9)

If you don't understand something in this Web note, please e-mail Dr. Sitton.